Month: November 2025

In archaeology, baulks are the unexcavated strips of earth left standing between excavation squares or trenches. They serve as reference walls that preserve the stratigraphy (layering) of a site, allowing archaeologists to study soil profiles and maintain spatial control during excavation.

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🌍 Definition

• Baulk: A vertical section of earth deliberately left unexcavated between dig units.
• Function: Provides a visible record of stratigraphy, helps control excavation boundaries, and stabilizes trenches.
• Etymology: From Old English balca (“ridge, bank”).

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🔑 Archaeological Contexts

• Excavation Grids:
  • Sites are often divided into squares (e.g., 5×5 m). Baulks separate these squares.
  • They allow archaeologists to “read” soil layers across the site.
• Stratigraphic Control:
  • Baulks preserve vertical profiles showing cultural deposits, natural layers, and features.
• Practical Role:
  • Provide walkways for archaeologists.
  • Prevent collapse of excavation walls.
• Recording:
  • Baulk faces are carefully drawn, photographed, and described to document stratigraphy.

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📚 Importance in Anthropology

• Methodological Insight: Baulks are essential for stratigraphic excavation, ensuring accurate interpretation of cultural sequences.
• Cultural Identity: Stratigraphy revealed in baulks helps reconstruct occupation phases, construction events, and abandonment processes.
• Comparative Value: Baulks link horizontal excavation (exposing features) with vertical analysis (layering).

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In short: Baulks are unexcavated earth strips left between trenches or squares, crucial for recording stratigraphy and maintaining excavation control.

 

In anthropology and archaeology, basket traps are woven fishing devices designed to passively capture fish or aquatic animals. They are among the oldest and most widespread fishing technologies, reflecting ingenuity in material culture and ecological adaptation.

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🌍 Definition

• Basket Trap: A container-like trap, usually woven from plant fibers, reeds, or bamboo, designed with a funnel or narrowing entrance that allows fish to enter but prevents escape.
• Function: Passive gear—fish swim in, guided by currents or bait, and are trapped.
• Design Variants:
  • Cylindrical or conical baskets.
  • Funnel-shaped entrances.
  • Sometimes weighted with stones or anchored with stakes.

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🔑 Anthropological Contexts

• Ethnography:
  • Used by Indigenous peoples worldwide (e.g., Native American river traps, Pacific Island basket traps).
  • Often placed in streams, estuaries, or tidal zones.
• Archaeology:
  • Organic basketry rarely survives, but impressions, associated weights, or ethnographic parallels suggest their use in prehistory.
• Material Culture:
  • Constructed from locally available fibers (willow, cane, palm, bamboo).
  • Reflect ecological knowledge and craftsmanship.
• Subsistence Strategies:
  • Basket traps allow communities to harvest fish efficiently with minimal labor.
  • Often used in combination with weirs or fences to funnel fish into traps.

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📚 Importance in Anthropology

• Technological Insight: Demonstrates adaptation of weaving techniques to subsistence needs.
• Cultural Identity: Basket traps embody local ecological knowledge and traditional craftsmanship.
• Comparative Value: Highlights parallels between fishing technologies across continents.
• Economic Role: Supports subsistence economies and small-scale trade in fish.

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In short: Basket traps are woven fishing devices with funnel-like entrances, used worldwide to passively capture fish, reflecting ecological adaptation and cultural ingenuity.

 

In anatomy and anthropology, the basicranium refers to the base of the cranium (skull), specifically the bones that form the floor of the cranial cavity. It is a critical region for understanding human evolution, comparative anatomy, and functional morphology.

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🌍 Definition

• Basicranium: The cranial base, comprising the bones that support the brain and connect the skull to the spine.
• Key Bones:
  • Occipital (posterior cranial base)
  • Sphenoid (central cranial base)
  • Temporal (petrous portions, housing the inner ear)
  • Ethmoid (anterior cranial base)

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🔑 Anthropological & Evolutionary Contexts

• Human Evolution:
  • The angle and flexion of the basicranium are important markers of bipedalism and brain reorganization.
  • Modern humans show a more flexed cranial base compared to apes, allowing for reorientation of the face and brain.
• Comparative Anatomy:
  • Differences in basicranial morphology distinguish primates, hominins, and other mammals.
  • The position of the foramen magnum (opening for the spinal cord) is a key diagnostic trait for upright posture.
• Archaeology & Fossil Studies:
  • Fossil hominins are often identified by basicranial features, which preserve well in skeletal remains.

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📚 Importance in Anthropology

• Functional Insight: The basicranium houses critical structures (inner ear, cranial nerves) and supports the brain.
• Cultural Identity: Variations in cranial base morphology can reflect population history and adaptation.
• Comparative Value: Provides evidence for shifts in locomotion, speech capacity, and brain evolution.
• Material Culture Link: Cranial bases are often studied in burial contexts, connecting osteology with funerary archaeology.

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In short: The basicranium is the cranial base, formed by occipital, sphenoid, temporal, and ethmoid bones, crucial for understanding human evolution, locomotion, and brain organization.

 

In lithic archaeology, baseward flaking refers to the removal of flakes from a stone tool or projectile point in a direction toward its base (the hafting end), rather than toward the tip. It is a specific flintknapping technique used to shape, thin, or prepare the basal portion of an artifact for hafting.

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🌍 Definition

• Baseward Flaking: Intentional flake removal oriented toward the basal edge of a biface or projectile point.
• Purpose: To thin the base, create notches, or prepare the surface for secure hafting onto a shaft.
• Orientation: Opposite of tipward flaking, which shapes the blade or cutting edge.

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🔑 Archaeological Contexts

• Hafting Preparation:
  • Baseward flaking often accompanies basal thinning and grinding.
  • Ensures bindings (sinew, fiber, cordage) grip securely without slippage.
• Projectile Points:
  • Seen in Paleoindian points (e.g., Clovis, Dalton) where basal preparation was critical.
  • Diagnostic scars reveal flaking direction and technique.
• Typology & Classification:
  • Archaeologists use flake scar orientation (baseward vs. tipward) to identify point types and cultural traditions.

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📚 Importance in Anthropology

• Technological Insight: Demonstrates advanced control in flintknapping and foresight in tool design.
• Cultural Identity: Specific flaking strategies are markers of particular archaeological cultures.
• Comparative Value: Highlights differences between fluting, notching, grinding, and thinning as hafting solutions.
• Material Culture: Reflects manipulation of minerals like flint, chert, and obsidian to achieve precise morphology.

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In short: Baseward flaking is the removal of flakes toward the base of a stone point, a key technique for hafting preparation and cultural identification in lithic analysis.

 

In anthropology, archaeology, and technical analysis, a base-line refers to a foundational reference line used for measurement, orientation, or comparison. Its meaning shifts depending on disciplinary context, but it always denotes a starting point or standard against which other data or structures are aligned.

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🌍 Definitions Across Contexts

• Archaeology & Surveying
  • Base-line: A fixed line established on the ground to serve as a reference for mapping, excavation grids, or site measurements.
  • Function: Ensures accuracy and consistency in recording artifact locations and architectural features.
• Anthropology (Social/Economic)
  • Base-line: A reference point for comparing cultural practices, economic systems, or social structures.
  • Example: Establishing a baseline of subsistence activity before the introduction of agriculture.
• Biology & Physiology
  • Baseline: The normal or resting measurement of a biological process (e.g., baseline heart rate, baseline hormone levels).
  • Function: Provides a standard for detecting change or stress responses.
• Statistics & Research
  • Baseline: The initial data point or control condition against which experimental results are compared.
  • Example: Baseline surveys in ethnography or public health studies.

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📚 Importance in Anthropology

• Comparative Insight: Baselines allow researchers to track cultural or biological change over time.
• Methodological Rigor: Establishing a baseline ensures consistency in excavation, measurement, and analysis.
• Cultural Identity: Baselines can highlight shifts in material culture, subsistence, or social organization.

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In short: A base-line is a foundational reference line or standard used in archaeology, anthropology, biology, and research to ensure accurate measurement, orientation, and comparison.

 

In archaeology, lithics, and anthropology, the base refers to the bottom portion of a tool, artifact, or structure. Its meaning shifts depending on context, but it generally denotes the foundational or lower part that supports function, attachment, or orientation.

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🌍 Definitions Across Contexts

• Lithic Analysis (Projectile Points & Tools)
  • Base: The bottom edge of a projectile point, opposite the tip.
  • Function: Often modified (notched, thinned, ground, fluted) to facilitate hafting onto a shaft.
  • Diagnostic: Base shape is critical for classifying point types (e.g., straight, concave, convex).
• Architecture & Funerary Archaeology
  • Base: The lowest structural element of a monument, mound, or building.
  • Function: Provides stability and orientation.
  • Example: The base of a barrow or cairn often defines its footprint.
• Anthropology (Social/Economic)
  • Base: Sometimes used metaphorically to describe the foundation of social or economic systems (e.g., Marxist anthropology distinguishes between economic “base” and cultural “superstructure”).

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📚 Importance in Anthropology

• Functional Insight: Bases reveal how tools were hafted, monuments stabilized, or systems organized.
• Cultural Identity: Distinct base forms in projectile points mark specific archaeological cultures.
• Comparative Value: The concept of “base” links material foundations (stone, soil, architecture) with social foundations (economy, kinship).

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In short: The base is the foundational portion of a tool, artifact, or structure—critical for hafting, stability, and classification in archaeology and anthropology.

 

Basalt is a fine-grained, dark-colored igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of low-viscosity lava rich in magnesium and iron. It is one of the most abundant rocks on Earth, covering much of the ocean floor and forming large continental lava flows.

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🌍 Geological Definition

• Rock Type: Extrusive igneous (volcanic) rock.
• Composition: Primarily plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, and olivine; low silica content.
• Texture: Fine-grained (aphanitic), sometimes with vesicles (gas bubbles).
• Color: Typically dark gray to black.

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🔑 Geological Contexts

• Formation:
  • Produced by partial melting of the mantle.
  • Common at mid-ocean ridges, hotspots, and continental flood basalts.
• Distribution:
  • Oceanic crust is largely basalt.
  • Famous continental examples: Columbia River Basalt (USA), Deccan Traps (India).
• Variants:
  • Tholeiitic basalt (mid-ocean ridges).
  • Alkali basalt (continental rifts, hotspots).

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📚 Importance in Anthropology & Material Culture

• Toolmaking:
  • Prehistoric peoples used basalt for grinding stones, axes, and other durable tools.
• Architecture:
  • Basalt blocks used in ancient construction (e.g., temples, roads).
• Symbolism:
  • Dark, dense basalt often associated with strength and permanence in cultural contexts.
• Trade & Exchange:
  • Basalt artifacts can indicate quarrying and distribution networks in archaeology.

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In short: Basalt is a dark volcanic rock forming much of Earth’s crust, valued in both geology and human material culture for its abundance, durability, and symbolic strength.

 

In lithic archaeology, basal thinning refers to the intentional removal of flakes from the base of a stone tool or projectile point to make it thinner and easier to haft. It is a hallmark of Paleoindian technology, especially in North America, and is closely associated with fluted points like Clovis.

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🌍 Definition

• Basal Thinning: The process of striking or pressure-flaking flakes off the basal edge of a biface or projectile point.
• Purpose: To reduce thickness at the base, facilitating secure attachment to a shaft with sinew or fiber bindings.
• Orientation: Applied to the basal edge and sometimes extending upward along the midline.

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🔑 Archaeological Contexts

• Paleoindian Points:
  • Clovis points often exhibit basal thinning in combination with fluting.
  • Other traditions (e.g., Dalton points) use basal thinning without full fluting.
• Hafting Technology:
  • Thinner bases allowed bindings to grip tightly without slippage.
  • Reduced risk of splitting shafts during use.
• Diagnostic Feature:
  • Basal thinning is a key trait for identifying Paleoindian artifacts.
  • Helps distinguish between point types and cultural traditions.

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📚 Importance in Anthropology

• Technological Insight: Shows advanced flintknapping skill and foresight in tool design.
• Cultural Identity: Specific thinning techniques are linked to particular archaeological cultures.
• Comparative Value: Highlights differences between fluted, stemmed, and notched hafting strategies.
• Material Culture: Reflects manipulation of minerals like flint, chert, and obsidian to achieve precise tool morphology.

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In short: Basal thinning is the removal of flakes from the base of stone points to facilitate hafting, a diagnostic hallmark of Paleoindian lithic technology.

 

In lithic archaeology, a basal notch is a deliberate indentation or cut made at the base of a stone tool or projectile point. It is a key hafting feature that helps secure the point to a shaft or handle.

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🌍 Definition

• Basal Notch: A notch or indentation located at the base of a biface or projectile point.
• Function: Provides a secure place for bindings (sinew, fiber, or cordage) when attaching the point to a shaft.
• Orientation: Opposite the tip, at the basal edge of the artifact.

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🔑 Archaeological Contexts

• Projectile Points:
  • Basal notches are diagnostic features in many point types (e.g., Dalton points in North America).
  • They can be single or multiple, shallow or deep, depending on cultural tradition.
• Hafting Technology:
  • Notches allowed bindings to grip tightly, preventing slippage during use.
  • Often combined with basal grinding to protect sinew bindings.
• Typology & Chronology:
  • Basal notch styles help archaeologists classify points and identify cultural affiliations.
  • Variations in notch form are used to date artifacts and track technological change.

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📚 Importance in Anthropology

• Functional Insight: Shows how prehistoric peoples engineered tools for durability and efficiency.
• Cultural Identity: Distinct notch styles are markers of specific archaeological cultures.
• Comparative Value: Highlights differences between notched, stemmed, and fluted hafting strategies.
• Material Culture: Reflects skilled manipulation of minerals like flint, chert, and obsidian.

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In short: A basal notch is an indentation at the base of a stone point, crucial for hafting and classification in lithic analysis.

 

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) is the minimum number of calories your body needs to perform essential life functions at rest, such as breathing, circulation, and maintaining body temperature. It represents about 60–70% of your daily energy expenditure.

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🌍 Definition

• BMR: The energy (calories) your body uses at rest in a neutral environment, after fasting.
• Reference Point: Measured under strict lab conditions—awake, calm, post-absorptive (12–14 hours after last meal).
• Difference from RMR: Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR) is similar but includes low-effort daily activities, making it slightly higher.

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🔑 Factors Affecting BMR

• Body size & composition: More lean muscle tissue → higher BMR; fat tissue requires less energy.
• Sex: Males generally have higher BMR due to larger body size and muscle mass.
• Age: BMR decreases with age, mainly due to muscle loss.
• Genetics & race: Genetic variation influences metabolic rate.
• Hormones: Thyroid hormone levels strongly affect BMR (hyperthyroidism ↑, hypothyroidism ↓).
• Environment: Extreme cold or heat increases BMR as the body works to regulate temperature.
• Life stages: Growth, pregnancy, and lactation raise BMR significantly.

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📊 Average Values

• Men: ~1,696 calories/day.
• Women: ~1,410 calories/day.
  These are averages; individual BMRs vary widely.

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🧮 How to Calculate BMR

Common equations include:

• Harris-Benedict Equation:
  • Men: (BMR = 88.362 + (13.397 \cdot W) + (4.799 \cdot H) – (5.677 \cdot A))
  • Women: (BMR = 447.593 + (9.247 \cdot W) + (3.098 \cdot H) – (4.330 \cdot A))
    Where (W) = weight (kg), (H) = height (cm), (A) = age (years).
• Mifflin-St Jeor Equation (more accurate for modern populations):
  • Men: (BMR = 10W + 6.25H – 5A + 5)
  • Women: (BMR = 10W + 6.25H – 5A – 161).

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In short: Basal Metabolic Rate is the baseline energy your body requires to sustain life, influenced by muscle mass, age, sex, genetics, and environment, and typically calculated using equations like Harris-Benedict or Mifflin-St Jeor.

 

In lithic archaeology, basal grinding refers to the deliberate smoothing or polishing of the basal edge of a stone tool or projectile point. It is a diagnostic feature often associated with Paleoindian points, such as Clovis and Folsom, and provides insight into hafting technology and craftsmanship.

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🌍 Definition

• Basal Grinding: The abrasion or polishing of the base (and sometimes the lower lateral edges) of a biface or projectile point.
• Purpose: To dull sharp edges so they would not cut sinew bindings or wooden shafts during hafting.

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🔑 Archaeological Contexts

• Paleoindian Points:
  • Clovis points often exhibit basal grinding along the base and lower edges.
  • Folsom points show similar treatment, aiding secure hafting.
• Hafting Technology:
  • Grinding prevented damage to bindings and improved durability.
  • Indicates careful preparation before attaching points to spears or darts.
• Diagnostic Feature:
  • Helps archaeologists identify cultural traditions and distinguish point types.
  • Basal grinding is one of the traits used to classify Paleoindian artifacts.

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📚 Importance in Anthropology

• Technological Insight: Demonstrates attention to tool performance and longevity.
• Cultural Identity: Specific grinding patterns are linked to particular archaeological cultures.
• Comparative Value: Highlights differences between Paleoindian and later Archaic point-making traditions.
• Material Culture: Reflects skilled manipulation of minerals like flint, chert, and obsidian.

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In short: Basal grinding is the smoothing of the basal edge of stone points to aid hafting, a hallmark of Paleoindian lithic technology.

 

In archaeology and lithic analysis, the basal edge refers to the bottom margin of a stone tool or projectile point, opposite the tip. It is a key diagnostic feature used to classify and interpret artifacts, especially in North American Paleoindian and Archaic contexts.

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🌍 Definition

• Basal Edge: The lower edge of a projectile point, biface, or blade, typically where hafting (attachment to a shaft or handle) occurs.
• Orientation: Opposite the point or blade tip; often modified for hafting stability.

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🔑 Archaeological Contexts

• Projectile Points:
  • Basal edges may be straight, concave, convex, or notched.
  • Shape and treatment (ground, thinned, fluted) are diagnostic of cultural traditions.
• Hafting Technology:
  • Basal edges are often ground smooth to prevent cutting sinew bindings.
  • Thinning or fluting at the base facilitates secure attachment to shafts.
• Typology & Chronology:
  • Distinct basal edge forms help identify point types (e.g., Clovis points with fluted basal edges).
  • Variations mark technological traditions and time periods.

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📚 Importance in Anthropology

• Functional Insight: Reveals how tools were hafted and used.
• Cultural Identity: Basal edge styles are markers of specific archaeological cultures.
• Comparative Value: Enables classification of lithic assemblages across sites and regions.
• Material Culture: Reflects choices in mineral resources (flint, obsidian, chert) and craftsmanship.

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In short: The basal edge is the bottom margin of a stone tool or projectile point, crucial for hafting and classification in lithic analysis.