Author: webref

by troop

In anthropology and primatology, the phrase “by troop” usually refers to studying or describing social organization at the level of a troop. A troop is the basic social unit of many nonhuman primates, especially monkeys and baboons.

🌍 Definition of Troop

  • Troop: A cohesive social group of primates, typically consisting of multiple adult males, multiple adult females, and their offspring.
  • Size: Can range from a few dozen to over a hundred individuals depending on species and ecology.
  • Structure:
    • Dominance hierarchies (male and female).
    • Kinship ties (matrilines in macaques, baboons).
    • Cooperative behaviors (grooming, defense, infant care).

🔑 Anthropological Contexts

  • Primate Studies:
    • Troops are the unit of analysis for social behavior, mating strategies, and ecological adaptation.
    • Example: Baboons live in large troops with complex dominance hierarchies.
  • Human Evolutionary Analogy:
    • Early hominins may have lived in troop-like groups before developing more flexible band-level societies.
    • Troop studies help anthropologists infer the roots of human cooperation, conflict, and kinship.
  • Ethnographic Language:
    • “By troop” can mean analyzing behavior or movement group by group, rather than by individual.

📚 Importance in Anthropology

  • Social Organization: Troops illustrate how primates manage group living, dominance, and cooperation.
  • Evolutionary Insight: Provides models for understanding the origins of human social systems.
  • Comparative Value: Troops differ from human bands, tribes, and states, highlighting evolutionary transitions.

In short: In anthropology, “by troop” refers to analyzing primate social organization at the group level, where the troop is the fundamental unit of social life.

 

butchering station

Butchering station in anthropology and archaeology refers to a location where animals were systematically processed for meat, hides, and other resources. These sites are identified through characteristic bone assemblages, tool marks, and spatial organization, and they provide crucial evidence about subsistence strategies and social organization in past societies.

🌍 Definition

  • Butchering Station: A designated area where carcasses were dismembered, meat was removed, and bones were processed.
  • Archaeological Signature: Concentrations of animal bones with cut marks, percussion scars, and associated lithic tools.

🔑 Archaeological Contexts

  • Paleolithic Sites:
    • Butchering stations often occur near kill sites, where hunters processed large game (e.g., mammoth, bison).
    • Examples: Olorgesailie (Kenya), Boxgrove (England), and Clovis kill sites in North America.
  • Neolithic & Later Societies:
    • Specialized butchering areas appear in settlements, linked to feasting, ritual, or everyday subsistence.
  • Ethnographic Parallels:
    • Modern hunter-gatherers often establish temporary butchering stations near hunting grounds to reduce transport weight.

📚 Importance in Anthropology

  • Subsistence Strategies: Reveals hunting practices, prey selection, and resource use.
  • Social Organization: Large butchering stations suggest coordinated group hunting and division of labor.
  • Technological Insight: Associated stone tools (scrapers, knives, hammerstones) show how carcasses were processed.
  • Cultural Identity: Ritualized butchering stations may indicate feasting or ceremonial consumption.

In short: A butchering station is an archaeological site where animals were systematically processed, offering insights into hunting, technology, and social organization.

 

burin

Burin is a specialized stone tool type in lithic technology, widely studied in archaeology and anthropology. It is characterized by a chisel-like edge used for engraving, carving, or working softer materials like bone, antler, and wood.

🌍 Definition

  • Burin: A flake tool modified to produce a sharp, narrow, chisel-like edge.
  • Name Origin: From French burin (“engraver’s chisel”).
  • Morphology:
    • Created by striking flakes from the edge of a larger flake or blade.
    • Produces a strong, narrow working edge suitable for incision.

🔑 Archaeological Contexts

  • Upper Paleolithic Europe:
    • Burins were common in toolkits of Aurignacian, Gravettian, and Magdalenian cultures.
    • Used for engraving bone, antler, ivory, and preparing blanks for projectile points.
  • Global Distribution:
    • Found in many Paleolithic contexts across Eurasia.
    • Often associated with symbolic or artistic production (engraving ornaments, figurines).
  • Variants:
    • Dihedral Burin: Made by removing flakes from two intersecting edges.
    • Angle Burin: Produced at the corner of a blade.
    • Truncation Burin: Made by truncating a blade and then striking flakes from the truncation.

📚 Importance in Anthropology

  • Technological Insight: Shows advanced flintknapping skills and specialization.
  • Cultural Identity: Associated with symbolic and artistic expression in the Upper Paleolithic.
  • Comparative Value: Distinguishes complex toolkits from earlier, simpler assemblages.
  • Material Culture Link: Connects lithic technology with bone and antler industries.

In short: A burin is a chisel-like stone tool used in the Upper Paleolithic for engraving and working bone, antler, and wood, marking a key step in symbolic and technological development.

 

burials

Burials in anthropology and archaeology refer to the practices and material remains associated with disposing of the dead. They are one of the richest sources of information about past societies, revealing beliefs, social structures, and cultural identities.

🌍 Definition

  • Burial: The intentional placement of human remains in a specific location, often accompanied by ritual or material offerings.
  • Forms:
    • Inhumation: Interring the body in the ground.
    • Cremation: Burning the body, sometimes followed by burial of ashes.
    • Secondary Burial: Reburial after initial decomposition.
    • Monumental Burial: Construction of mounds, tombs, or megaliths over graves.

🔑 Anthropological & Archaeological Contexts

  • Prehistoric Burials:
    • Neanderthal burials (e.g., Shanidar Cave) show early ritual behavior.
    • Upper Paleolithic burials often include grave goods, ornaments, and ochre.
  • Ancient Civilizations:
    • Egyptian pyramids and tombs reflect elaborate funerary beliefs.
    • Mycenaean shaft graves and tholos tombs highlight elite status.
  • Indigenous North America:
    • Adena and Hopewell cultures built burial mounds with ceremonial artifacts.
  • Ethnographic Examples:
    • Many societies practice burials that reflect cosmology, kinship, and social hierarchy.

📚 Importance in Anthropology

  • Social Hierarchy: Grave goods and monumentality often indicate status differences.
  • Ritual Practice: Burials reveal beliefs about death, ancestors, and the afterlife.
  • Material Culture: Artifacts in burials provide evidence of trade, technology, and symbolism.
  • Identity & Memory: Burials anchor communities to landscapes, reinforcing cultural continuity.

In short: Burials are intentional practices of disposing of the dead, providing archaeologists with vital evidence of ritual, hierarchy, and cultural identity across time and space.

 

burial mound

Burial mound (also called a tumuli, barrow, or kurgan) is an earthen or stone structure built over graves, widely studied in archaeology and anthropology as a form of funerary architecture. These monuments are found across the world and provide crucial evidence of ritual, social hierarchy, and cultural identity.

🌍 Definition

  • Burial Mound: A raised structure of earth, stone, or mixed materials constructed over one or more burials.
  • Forms:
    • Barrow: Common in Europe.
    • Kurgan: Found in Eurasian steppe cultures.
    • Tumuli: General term used globally.
    • Mounds: In North America, associated with Indigenous mound-building cultures.

🔑 Anthropological & Archaeological Contexts

  • North America:
    • Adena and Hopewell cultures (c. 1000 BCE–500 CE) built elaborate burial mounds in the Ohio Valley.
    • Mississippian cultures constructed platform mounds for ritual and elite burials.
  • Europe:
    • Neolithic and Bronze Age barrows mark elite burials and territorial claims.
  • Eurasia:
    • Scythian and other steppe peoples built kurgans, often containing rich grave goods.
  • Japan:
    • Kofun period (250–538 CE) known for massive keyhole-shaped burial mounds.

📚 Importance in Anthropology

  • Social Hierarchy: Monumental burials often indicate elite status.
  • Ritual Practice: Reflects beliefs about death, ancestors, and cosmology.
  • Material Culture: Grave goods (weapons, ornaments, pottery) reveal trade, technology, and symbolism.
  • Landscape Modification: Burial mounds reshape environments, marking sacred or political space.

In short: Burial mounds are monumental earth or stone structures built over graves, serving as archaeological markers of ritual, hierarchy, and cultural identity across the world.

 

bulrush

Bulrush is a common name applied to several tall, grasslike wetland plants, especially in the genera Scirpus and Typha. In anthropology and ethnobotany, bulrushes are significant because they have been widely used by human societies for food, material culture, and symbolic purposes.

🌍 Definition & Ecology

  • Bulrush (Scirpus, Typha, Schoenoplectus): Perennial wetland plants with tall stems, often found in marshes, lakeshores, and riverbanks.
  • Morphology: Cylindrical or triangular stems, often 1–3 meters tall, with clusters of small flowers at the tips.
  • Habitat: Thrive in wetlands, providing ecological services like erosion control and wildlife habitat.

🔑 Anthropological & Ethnobotanical Contexts

  • Material Culture:
    • Used for weaving mats, baskets, ropes, and thatching.
    • In ancient Egypt, bulrush (Cyperus papyrus) was used to make paper, boats, and sandals.
  • Food Use:
    • Rhizomes and young shoots eaten in some Indigenous traditions.
    • Seeds sometimes ground into flour.
  • Symbolic & Ritual Use:
    • Associated with water, fertility, and rebirth in various cultures.
    • Biblical references: Moses was placed in a basket of bulrushes (Exodus 2:3).
  • Archaeological Evidence:
    • Bulrush fibers preserved in waterlogged sites show early plant use in toolmaking and domestic life.

📚 Importance in Anthropology

  • Subsistence Strategies: Demonstrates how wetland plants were integrated into diets and crafts.
  • Cultural Identity: Bulrush weaving traditions remain important in Indigenous communities worldwide.
  • Comparative Value: Highlights human adaptation to aquatic environments.
  • Material Culture Link: Connects plant ecology with human technology and symbolism.

In short: Bulrush is a wetland plant with deep anthropological significance—used for weaving, food, and symbolism across cultures, from ancient Egypt to Indigenous North America.

 

bulbous

In anthropology and archaeology, the term bulbous is usually descriptive rather than technical—it refers to rounded, swollen, or convex forms in human anatomy, lithic technology, or material culture. Its meaning depends on context:

🌍 General Definition

  • Bulbous: Having a rounded, swollen, or convex shape, resembling a bulb.
  • Usage in Anthropology: Applied to anatomical features, stone tool morphology, or artifact descriptions.

🔑 Anthropological Contexts

1. Lithic Technology

  • Archaeologists describe flakes or cores as having a bulbous bulb of percussion when the swelling below the striking platform is especially pronounced.
  • Indicates a strong, hard-hammer blow during knapping.
  • Helps distinguish human-made flakes from natural fractures.

2. Human Anatomy

  • Used to describe cranial or facial morphology:
    • Bulbous forehead or bulbous nose in skeletal descriptions.
    • Can be a diagnostic trait in physical anthropology or forensic contexts.
  • Highlights variation in human populations and fossil hominins.

3. Material Culture

  • Applied to artifact shapes:
    • Bulbous pottery vessels with rounded bodies.
    • Bulbous ornaments or beads in ethnographic collections.
  • Indicates stylistic or functional design choices.

📚 Importance in Anthropology

  • Descriptive Precision: “Bulbous” is a morphological adjective that helps specialists record shape and form.
  • Diagnostic Value: In lithics, a bulbous percussion feature confirms intentional toolmaking.
  • Comparative Insight: In anatomy, bulbous traits can be compared across populations or fossil species.
  • Material Culture Link: In artifacts, bulbous forms often relate to function (storage capacity, aesthetics).

In short: In anthropology, “bulbous” is a descriptive term for rounded, swollen forms—applied to lithic features, human anatomy, and artifact morphology.

 

bulbar depression

In anthropology and archaeology, a bulbar depression is a diagnostic feature of stone tool production, referring to the concavity left on a core after a flake has been struck off. It is closely associated with the bulb of percussion and helps specialists identify intentional knapping versus natural breakage.

🌍 Definition

  • Bulbar Depression: A distinctive mark left on the core beneath the striking platform after a flake detachment.
  • Formation:
    • When a hammerstone or percussor strikes the core, energy propagates through the stone.
    • The flake detaches, leaving a swelling (bulb of percussion) on the flake and a corresponding depression on the core.
  • Diagnostic Value: Confirms human agency in lithic reduction sequences.

🔑 Archaeological Contexts

  • Lithic Analysis:
    • Bulbar depressions are studied alongside bulbs of percussion, striking platforms, and ripple marks.
    • Their presence indicates controlled flake removal rather than accidental fracture.
  • Technological Insight:
    • The size and shape of the depression vary depending on raw material, angle of impact, and force applied.
    • Hard hammer percussion tends to leave more pronounced depressions, while soft hammer percussion produces subtler ones.
  • Experimental Archaeology:
    • Replicative knapping experiments help archaeologists understand how bulbar depressions form and what they reveal about toolmaking skill.

📚 Importance in Anthropology

  • Human Behavior: Evidence of intentional tool production and mastery of fracture mechanics.
  • Cultural Identity: Different lithic traditions can be distinguished by percussion features.
  • Comparative Value: Natural fractures rarely produce bulbar depressions, making them diagnostic of human knapping.
  • Material Culture Link: Connects geology (fracture mechanics of flint, chert, obsidian) with human technological skill.

In short: A bulbar depression is the concavity left on a core after flake removal, serving as a key marker of intentional human knapping in lithic analysis.

Sources: Glossariz – Bulbar Depression Definition; Cambridge University Press – Stone Tools in the Paleolithic and Neolithic Near East; BAJR Practical Guide to Lithics.

 

bulb of percussion

Bulb of percussion is a key diagnostic feature in lithic technology and archaeology, referring to the swelling or convexity that appears on a flake just below the point of impact where it was struck from a core. It is one of the most important attributes used to identify human-made stone tools.

🌍 Definition

  • Bulb of Percussion: A raised, rounded area on the ventral surface of a flake, formed by the force of a blow during knapping.
  • Formation:
    • Created when a hammerstone or other percussor strikes the core.
    • The shock wave radiates through the stone, detaching a flake and leaving a bulb at the point of force transmission.

🔑 Archaeological Contexts

  • Lithic Analysis:
    • Presence of a bulb of percussion distinguishes human-made flakes from naturally broken rocks.
    • Helps archaeologists identify knapping techniques (hard hammer vs. soft hammer percussion).
  • Associated Features:
    • Striking Platform: The surface where the blow was delivered.
    • Ripple Marks: Concentric waves radiating from the bulb.
    • Eraillure Scar: Small secondary flake scars near the bulb.
  • Technological Insight:
    • Different percussors (stone, antler, wood) produce different bulb characteristics.
    • Softer hammers often yield diffuse bulbs, while hard hammers create pronounced bulbs.

📚 Importance in Anthropology

  • Human Behavior: Evidence of intentional tool production.
  • Cultural Identity: Different lithic traditions can be distinguished by flake morphology.
  • Comparative Value: Bulbs of percussion are absent in most natural fractures, making them diagnostic of human agency.
  • Material Culture Link: Connects geology (fracture mechanics of stone) with human technological skill.

In short: The bulb of percussion is the diagnostic swelling on a flake’s ventral surface, proving intentional human knapping and serving as a cornerstone of lithic analysis.

 

Brunton compass

The Brunton compass (often called the Brunton Pocket Transit) is a precision field instrument widely used in geology, archaeology, anthropology, and surveying. It was invented in 1894 by David W. Brunton, a Canadian mining engineer, and has become iconic for field sciences because it combines multiple functions in a compact, durable design.

🌍 Definition & Design

  • Brunton Compass / Pocket Transit: A handheld compass designed for geological and field measurements.
  • Key Features:
    • Magnetic compass for azimuth bearings.
    • Clinometer for measuring angles of slope, dip, or inclination.
    • Mirror and sighting system for accurate alignment.
    • Rugged, portable casing for field durability.

🔑 Anthropological & Archaeological Contexts

  • Archaeology:
    • Used to record orientations of features, alignments of boulder arrangements, or site grids.
  • Anthropology (Fieldwork):
    • Helps map landscapes, settlements, and cultural features with precision.
  • Geology & Paleontology:
    • Essential for measuring rock strata dip and strike.
    • Used in fossil site mapping and stratigraphic surveys.

📚 Importance in Field Sciences

  • Accuracy: Combines compass and clinometer in one tool, reducing error.
  • Versatility: Measures azimuth, inclination, and orientation in a single instrument.
  • Legacy: The Brunton compass became the standard for geologists and archaeologists throughout the 20th century.
  • Modern Use: Still employed today, though often supplemented by GPS and digital instruments.

In short: The Brunton compass is a classic field instrument combining compass and clinometer functions, indispensable for geologists, archaeologists, and anthropologists in mapping and orientation tasks.

 

brow ridge

Brow ridge (also called the supraorbital ridge or supraorbital torus) is a prominent bony ridge located above the eye sockets, forming part of the frontal bone of the skull. In anthropology, it is a key morphological feature used to study human evolution and variation among primates and hominins.

🌍 Definition

  • Brow Ridge: The bony protrusion above the orbits (eye sockets).
  • Anatomical Role:
    • Provides structural reinforcement for the face.
    • Distributes mechanical stress from chewing.
    • Protects the eyes.

🔑 Anthropological Contexts

  • Primate Comparison:
    • Great apes (gorillas, chimpanzees) have pronounced brow ridges.
    • Modern humans have reduced brow ridges, with more vertical foreheads.
  • Hominin Evolution:
    • Early hominins (Australopithecus, Homo erectus, Neanderthals) had large brow ridges.
    • Reduction in brow ridge size is associated with changes in cranial shape, brain expansion, and social signaling.
  • Variation:
    • Neanderthals: Massive, continuous brow ridges.
    • Homo sapiens: Small, discontinuous ridges above each orbit.

📚 Importance in Anthropology

  • Evolutionary Insight: Brow ridge reduction reflects shifts in diet, cranial mechanics, and social communication.
  • Taxonomic Marker: Helps distinguish fossil species and track evolutionary trends.
  • Symbolic Function: Some anthropologists argue reduced brow ridges allowed for more expressive foreheads, aiding nonverbal communication.
  • Comparative Value: Highlights differences between robust archaic hominins and gracile modern humans.

In short: The brow ridge is a bony feature above the eye sockets, prominent in archaic hominins and apes, reduced in modern humans, and central to studies of cranial evolution and social communication.

 

bronze age

The Bronze Age was a major prehistoric era (c. 3300–1200 BCE in the Near East, c. 3200–600 BCE in Europe) defined by the widespread use of bronze tools, weapons, and ornaments, marking the transition from stone technologies to complex urban societies.

🌍 Definition & Chronology

  • Bronze Age: Archaeological term for the period when societies produced bronze (copper alloyed with tin or arsenic) or traded for it.
  • Chronology varies by region:
    • Near East: ~3300–1200 BCE
    • Europe: ~3200–600 BCE
    • India: ~3300–1200 BCE
    • China: ~2000–700 BCE

🔑 Anthropological Contexts

  • Technological Innovation:
    • Bronze tools and weapons replaced stone, improving agriculture, warfare, and craft production.
    • Innovations included the potter’s wheel, advanced metallurgy, and monumental architecture.
  • Urbanization:
    • Rise of cities and stratified societies (e.g., Mesopotamia, Indus Valley, Mycenaean Greece).
  • Trade Networks:
    • Copper and tin were rare in the same regions, so long-distance trade networks developed.
    • Exchange linked Europe, the Near East, and Asia.
  • Warfare & Diplomacy:
    • Expansion of territorial states led to conflicts over resources.
    • Alliances and marriage arrangements were used to mitigate disputes.

📚 Importance in Anthropology

  • Human Evolution of Society: The Bronze Age marks the shift from village-based subsistence to complex civilizations.
  • Material Culture: Bronze artifacts (weapons, jewelry, tools) reveal social hierarchy and craft specialization.
  • Comparative Value: Studying Bronze Age societies highlights how technological innovation drives social complexity.
  • World Systems: Scholars argue the Bronze Age saw the first interconnected Afro-Eurasian “world system”.

In short: The Bronze Age was a transformative era defined by bronze metallurgy, urbanization, trade networks, and the rise of complex civilizations across Afro-Eurasia.