Hydrogen

Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. It is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe, making up about 75% of its elemental mass. Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, and highly flammable gas at standard temperature and pressure.

Key Characteristics of Hydrogen:

  1. Atomic Structure: Hydrogen consists of a single proton in its nucleus and one electron orbiting around it. It is the simplest and lightest atom, and its atomic weight is approximately 1 atomic mass unit.
  2. Abundance and Occurrence: Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, primarily found in stars and gas giant planets. On Earth, hydrogen is not found freely in large quantities but is present in compounds such as water (H2O) and hydrocarbons.
  3. Isotopes: Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes: protium, deuterium, and tritium. Protium is the most common isotope and accounts for more than 99% of naturally occurring hydrogen. Deuterium is a stable isotope that contains one neutron in addition to the proton, and tritium is a radioactive isotope with two extra neutrons.
  4. Chemical Reactivity: Hydrogen is highly reactive and readily combines with other elements. It forms compounds with most nonmetals, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and ammonia (NH3). It also reacts with metals to form metal hydrides.
  5. Applications: Hydrogen has various applications in industries and research. It is used in the production of ammonia for fertilizers, petroleum refining, and the synthesis of various chemicals. Hydrogen fuel cells are an emerging technology that uses hydrogen to produce electricity, providing a clean and efficient energy source.
  6. Potential as a Fuel: Hydrogen is often considered a potential alternative fuel source due to its high energy content and the fact that its combustion produces only water vapor as a byproduct. However, challenges remain in terms of hydrogen production, storage, and distribution for widespread use as a fuel.

Hydrogen has also been of significant interest in scientific research and as a potential source of clean energy. Ongoing studies focus on hydrogen as a fuel for transportation, energy storage, and its use in fuel cells to power electric vehicles and generate electricity.

Overall, hydrogen’s unique properties and potential applications make it a fascinating element with a range of practical uses and scientific significance.

Dmitri Mendeleev

Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) was a Russian chemist and inventor who is best known for his development of the periodic table of elements. He is considered one of the most influential scientists in the field of chemistry and made significant contributions to our understanding of the elements and their organization.

Key Contributions and Achievements of Dmitri Mendeleev:

  1. Periodic Table of Elements: Mendeleev is credited with creating the first widely recognized periodic table of elements. In 1869, he organized the known elements based on their properties and atomic weights, arranging them in a tabular form. His table had gaps for elements that were yet to be discovered, and he accurately predicted the properties of these missing elements.
  2. Periodic Law: Mendeleev’s work on the periodic table led to the formulation of the Periodic Law. The law states that the chemical and physical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers. This principle forms the foundation for understanding the relationships and trends among elements in the periodic table.
  3. Contributions to Chemical Nomenclature: Mendeleev played a key role in the development of a standardized system for chemical nomenclature. He proposed the use of chemical symbols and atomic weights to represent elements, providing a more consistent and systematic way of identifying and referring to elements and compounds.
  4. Work on Stoichiometry: Mendeleev made significant contributions to stoichiometry, which is the study of the quantitative relationships between substances involved in chemical reactions. He investigated the laws of chemical combination and developed methods for calculating atomic weights and molecular formulas.
  5. Isotopes: Mendeleev’s studies on atomic weights and the periodic table laid the groundwork for the discovery and understanding of isotopes. Although he didn’t directly discover isotopes, his work provided a framework for subsequent researchers to identify and study these variations of elements with different numbers of neutrons.
  6. Contributions to Education and Science Policy: Mendeleev was an advocate for science education and played an active role in science policy in Russia. He promoted the importance of scientific research, education, and collaboration, and his efforts helped shape the development of the Russian scientific community.

Dmitri Mendeleev’s work on the periodic table revolutionized the field of chemistry and provided a systematic framework for organizing and understanding the elements. His contributions have had a lasting impact on the scientific community, and the periodic table continues to be a fundamental tool in chemistry, guiding research, discovery, and the study of chemical properties and reactions.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) was a German philosopher, mathematician, and polymath who made significant contributions to various fields, including mathematics, philosophy, logic, and metaphysics. He is recognized as one of the most important intellectuals of the 17th century and is often regarded as a counterpart to Isaac Newton in the development of calculus.

Key Contributions and Achievements of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz:

  1. Calculus: Leibniz independently developed the mathematical framework of calculus, similar to Isaac Newton. He introduced the notation of calculus, including the integral sign (∫) and the notation for derivatives (dy/dx). Leibniz’s notation and methods became widely adopted and are still in use today.
  2. Principle of Sufficient Reason: Leibniz formulated the principle of sufficient reason, which states that everything has a reason or explanation for its existence, either in the necessity of its nature or in an external cause. This principle influenced his metaphysical and philosophical inquiries, emphasizing the search for causes and explanations.
  3. Monadology: Leibniz’s philosophical system was based on the concept of monads, which he described as indivisible, immaterial, and non-extended substances. According to Leibniz, all things in the universe, including human beings, are composed of monads. He proposed that monads have perception, appetite, and consciousness, leading to his theory of a harmonious, pre-established harmony in the universe.
  4. Pre-established Harmony: Leibniz developed the concept of pre-established harmony to address the mind-body problem. He posited that the mind and body do not directly interact but are synchronized by a pre-established harmony created by God. This concept aimed to reconcile the existence of both mental and physical realities without the need for direct causal interaction.
  5. Philosophy of Optimism: Leibniz embraced a philosophy of optimism, believing that this world, created by a benevolent and all-knowing God, is the best possible world. He argued that despite the existence of evil and suffering, the overall balance of the world is ultimately good and justified in the grand scheme of things.
  6. Contributions to Logic: Leibniz made important contributions to logic, including the development of the binary number system, which forms the foundation of modern digital computing. His work on logical calculus and symbolic logic paved the way for the development of symbolic reasoning and formal languages.

Leibniz’s ideas and contributions spanned a wide range of disciplines, including mathematics, philosophy, logic, theology, and physics. His work has had a lasting impact on various fields and continues to be influential today. Leibniz’s intellectual pursuits exemplified his belief in the unity of knowledge, seeking to integrate various disciplines and develop a comprehensive understanding of the world.

Isaac Newton

Isaac Newton (1643-1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and natural philosopher who is widely recognized as one of the most influential scientists in history. His groundbreaking contributions to physics and mathematics laid the foundation for modern science and revolutionized our understanding of the natural world.

Key Contributions and Achievements of Isaac Newton:

  1. Laws of Motion: Newton’s laws of motion, published in his monumental work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” (1687), established the fundamental principles governing the motion of objects. His laws describe the relationship between an object’s motion, the forces acting upon it, and the resulting acceleration. The laws are still widely used in classical mechanics today.
  2. Universal Gravitation: Newton formulated the theory of universal gravitation, which explains the force of gravity between objects. He proposed that every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance. This theory provided a unified explanation for celestial motion and terrestrial phenomena.
  3. Calculus: Newton independently developed the mathematical framework of calculus, along with the German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Calculus is a branch of mathematics that deals with change and is fundamental to the study of motion, rates, and infinitesimal analysis. Newton’s work laid the foundation for differential and integral calculus.
  4. Optics: Newton conducted significant research in optics and made important discoveries. He studied the behavior of light, investigated the properties of lenses and prisms, and developed the theory of color. His work on optics culminated in his book “Opticks” (1704), which presented his experiments and theories on light and color.
  5. Reflecting Telescope: Newton designed and built the first practical reflecting telescope, now known as the Newtonian telescope. By using a curved mirror instead of a lens to gather and focus light, the reflecting telescope overcame many of the limitations of refracting telescopes, allowing for improved astronomical observations.
  6. Principia Mathematica: Newton’s seminal work “Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica” (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) presented his laws of motion and the theory of universal gravitation. It is considered one of the most important scientific works ever published and had a profound impact on the scientific community.

Isaac Newton’s discoveries and theories revolutionized our understanding of physics, astronomy, and mathematics. His work laid the foundation for classical mechanics, and his scientific methodology and approach to empirical investigation influenced generations of scientists. Newton’s contributions to science, particularly in the areas of mechanics and gravitation, remain fundamental to our understanding of the physical world.

The confidence/significance level implies a certain cost ratio between type I error and type II error: For a stronger focus on decision theory in psychological assessment

Psychological assessment often requires concrete decisions, e.g. whether a person is “below the norm” in some psychological domain. It is still common that practitioners directly compare the test score with some theoretical norm value (e.g., one standard deviation below the mean). In a literature review, we show that all German textbooks on Psychological Assessment recommend taking measurement uncertainty of psychological tests into account, for example by using critical differences, hypothesis tests, or confidence intervals. However, these recommendations resemble heuristics without a comprehensible rationale on how to choose necessary parameters (e.g., the appropriate significance or confidence level). Statistical decision theory is a mathematical framework for making rational decisions. Although once en vogue in psychology (cf. Cronbach & Gleser, 1965), it receives little attention today. When viewed from a decision theoretic perspective, one can show the implicit assumptions of current decision heuristics. For example, using two-sided hypothesis tests and confidence intervals with significance level alpha = 0.05 implies that type I errors are 39 times as costly as type II errors. In this paper, we give a short introduction to decision theory and use this framework to discuss the implication of current assessment practices. We also present a small survey of clinical neuropsychologists, who reported different representations of their internal cost ratio for a fictitious assessment scenario. Although the practitioners’ cost ratios varied, the majority chose less extreme ratios than the common heuristics would imply. We argue that psychological assessment would benefit from explicitly considering decision theoretic implications in practice and outline possible future directions.

Sterner, P., Friemelt, B., Goretzko, D., Kraus, E. B., Bühner, M., & Pargent, F. (2022, June 10). The confidence/significance level implies a certain cost ratio between type I error and type II error: For a stronger focus on decision theory in psychological assessment – Das Konfidenz-/Signifikanzniveau impliziert ein bestimmtes Kostenverhältnis zwischen Fehler 1. Art und Fehler 2. Art: Für ein stärkeres Einbeziehen der Entscheidungstheorie in die psychologische Einzelfalldiagnostik. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/rsqvt

Critical psychologies and climate change

This article is a review of recent contributions in critical psychology, and its close cousins, critical social psychology, critical community psychology and liberation psychology, to understandings of the human response to climate change. It contrasts critical psychology with mainstream psychology in general terms, before introducing a critical psychological perspective on climate change. Central to this perspective is a critique of the framing of individual behavior change as the problem and solution to climate change in mainstream psychology, and a related emphasis on identifying ‘barriers’ to pro-environmental behavior. This framework is argued to be reductive, obscuring or downplaying the influence of a range of factors in shaping predominant responses to climate change to date, including social context, discourse, power and affect. Currently, critical psychologies set out to study the relative contribution of these factors to (in)action on climate change. A related concern is how the psychological and emotional impacts of climate change impact unevenly on communities and individuals, depending on place-based, economic, geographic and cultural differences, and giving rises to experiences of injustice, inequality and disempowerment. Critical psychology does not assume these to be overriding or inevitable psychological and social responses, however. Critical psychologies also undertake research and inform interventions that highlight the role of collective understanding, activism, empowerment and resistance as the necessary foundations of a genuine shift towards sustainable societies.

Adams, M. (2021, February 10). Critical psychologies and climate change. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.01.007

Beyond a Dream: The Practical Foundations of Disconnected Psychology

Disconnected psychology is a form of psychological science in which researchers ground their work upon the main principles of psychological methods but are detached from a “field” consisting of other psychologists that comprise connected psychology. It has previously been proposed that combining the two forms of psychology would result in the most significant advancement of psychological knowledge (Krpan, 2020). However, disconnected psychology may seem to be a “utopian” idea rather than a realistic endeavor. The present article therefore sets the practical foundations of disconnected psychology. In this regard, I first describe a hypothetical disconnected psychologist and discuss relevant methodological and epistemological implications. I then propose how this variant of psychology could be integrated with the current academic system (i.e., with connected psychology). Overall, the present article transforms disconnected psychology from a dream into substance that could eventually maximize psychological knowledge.

Krpan, D. (2020, December 19). Beyond a Dream: The Practical Foundations of Disconnected Psychology. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/mw8fs

Scientific replication in the study of social animals

This chapter is written to help undergraduate students better understand the role of replication in psychology and how it applies to the study of social behavior. We briefly review various replication initiatives in psychology and the events that preceded our renewed focus on replication. We then discuss challenges in interpreting the low rate of replication in psychology, especially social psychology. Finally, we stress the need for better methods and theories to learn the right lessons when replications fail.

Van Bavel, J. J., & Cunningham, W. A. (2017, December 22). Scientific replication in the study of social animals. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/gsz85

An Inclusive Existential Positive Psychology: A Commentary

This is a commentary to dr. Paul T.P. Wong’s article Existential Positive Psychology (PP 2.0) and global wellbeing: Why it is Necessary During the Age of COVID-19, published in the International Journal of Existential Positive Psychology. Publication can be found at https://www.meaning.ca/ijepp-article/vol10-no1/an-inclusive-existential-positive-psychology-a-commentary/

Jans-Beken, L. (2021, February 14). An Inclusive Existential Positive Psychology: A Commentary. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/np7wm

Handbook of Positive Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality

This handbook aims to bridge the gap between the fields of positive psychology and the psychology of religion and spirituality. It is the authoritative guide to the intersections among religion, spirituality, and positive psychology and includes the following sections: (1) historical and theoretical considerations, (2) methodological considerations, (3) cultural considerations, (4) developmental considerations, (5) empirical research on happiness and well-being in relation to religion and spirituality, (6) empirical research on character strengths and virtues in relation to religion and spirituality, (7) clinical and applied considerations, and (8) field unification and advancement. Leading positive psychologists and psychologists of religion/spirituality have coauthored the chapters, drawing on expertise from their respective fields. The handbook is useful for social and clinical scientists, practitioners in helping professions, practitioners in religious and spiritual fields, and students of psychology and religion/spirituality.

Davis, E. B., Worthington, E., & Schnitker, S. (2022, February 14). Handbook of Positive Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/pgwtn

Book Review: Filsafat Manusia Untuk Psikologi (Human Philosophy For Psychology)

The book focuses on developing human philosophical perspectives in psychology which analyzed and reflected on scientific references related to philosophy, human philosophy, and Indonesian psychology development based on Indonesian human philosophy. This book is intended for anyone from any circle who wants to study human philosophy from a psychological perspective, designed for the psychology and philosophy community, and a reference for human philosophy courses majoring in psychology for both students and lecturers. In the development of psychology in Indonesia, human philosophical, scientific works related to psychology are still quite limited. Therefore, the author hopes the book will enrich the perspective of human philosophy in psychology in Indonesia.

Purwanto, T. M., & Pandin, M. G. R., Dr., M.Si., M.Phi., M.Psi., Psi. (2021, June 12). Book Review: Filsafat Manusia Untuk Psikologi (Human Philosophy For Psychology). https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/5x27m

“Oh, the Places You Can Go” Gen Z Psychology Students’ Perceived Career Options and Interests

Brian Collisson, Brian E. Eck

Background: Career options available to psychology graduates are often underestimated despite psychology being a marketable and versatile degree with hundreds of career options. Objective: This article identifies which career options students perceive as available to psychology graduates and assesses student interest in psychology-related careers. Method: In Study 1, 12 focus groups consisting of 59 psychology majors were asked to list the career options available to psychology graduates. In Study 2, 430 psychology students rated their interest in 273 psychology-related careers. Results: Study 1 revealed careers perceived as available to psychology graduates were most often in counseling (92%) and applied-settings (50%) with child-related (42%), business (25%), and research (25%) careers listed less often. Study 2 revealed psychology majors were most interested in counseling and child-related careers, with 18 of their top 20 careers of interest involving mental health or working with children. Conclusion: Students are often unaware of career options in psychology beyond counseling. Consequently, they tend to be most interested in careers related to counseling and children, particularly careers involving the mental healthcare of children. Teaching Implications: Findings may encourage psychology departments to communicate the broad range of psychology career options for the recruitment and advising of psychology majors.

10.31234/osf.io/tfx6n